1 Peter 3:18-22

 

 

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1 Peter 3:18  For Christ also died for sins once for all, the just for the unjust, so that He might bring us to God, having been put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the spirit;  (NASB: Lockman)

Greek: hoti kai Christos hapax peri hamartion epathen, (3SAAI) dikaios huper adikon, hina humas prosagage (3SAAS) to Theo, thanatotheis (5772) men sarki zoopoietheis (APPMSN) de pneumati; 
Amplified: For Christ [the Messiah Himself] died for sins once for all, the Righteous for the unrighteous (the Just for the unjust, the Innocent for the guilty), that He might bring us to God. In His human body He was put to death, but He was made alive in the spirit,  (Amplified Bible - Lockman)
KJV:
For Christ also hath once suffered for sins, the just for the unjust, that he might bring us to God, being put to death in the flesh, but quickened by the Spirit
NLT
: Christ also suffered when he died for our sins once for all time. He never sinned, but he died for sinners that he might bring us safely home to God. He suffered physical death, but he was raised to life in the Spirit. (
NLT - Tyndale House)
Phillips: Remember that Christ the just suffered for us the unjust, to bring us to God. That meant the death of his body, but he came to life again in the spirit.  (
Phillips: Touchstone)
Wuest:  Because Christ also died once for all in relation to sins, a just One on behalf of unjust ones, in order that He might provide you with an entree into the presence of God, having in fact been put to death with respect to the flesh [His human body], but made alive with respect to the spirit [His human spirit],    (
Erdmans
Young's Literal
: because also Christ once for sin did suffer -- righteous for unrighteous -- that he might lead us to God, having been put to death indeed, in the flesh, and having been made alive in the spirit,

References 1 Peter

Paul Apple
Albert Barnes
Brian Bell
John Calvin
Rich Cathers
Rich Cathers
Steven Cole
Thomas Constable
Ron Daniels
Robert L. Deffinbaugh
Dwight Edwards
Doug Goins
David Guzik
John MacArthur
John MacArthur
John MacArthur
Middletown Bible
John Piper
John Piper

Ray Pritchard
Ron Ritchie
Grant Richison
Grant Richison
A T Robertson
Dave Roper
Dave Roper
C H Spurgeon
C H Spurgeon
Marvin Vincent
Precept Ministries

1 Peter Commentary in Pdf
1 Peter 3
1 Peter 3:18 -22

1 Peter 3
1 Peter 3:8-18
1 Peter 3:8-18

1 Peter 3:18-22
1 Peter
1 Peter 3:18-22 After The Crucifixion

1 Peter 2:13-3:7: 2nd Look at Submission  
1 Peter: Exposition by Verse
1 Peter 3:8-18: Survival And Suffering
1 Peter 3

1 Peter 3:18a The Triumph of Christ's Suffering -1
1 Peter 3:18-20 The Triumph of Christ's Suffering -2
1 Peter 3:20-22 The Triumph of Christ's Suffering -3
1 Peter 3:21 Does Water Baptism Save?

1 Peter 3:18-22 Strengthened to Suffer
1 Peter 3:18-22 What is Baptism & Does it Save?

1 Peter 3:18-22 The Triumphant Christ

1 Peter 3:13-22 How...Respond To...Intimidation?

1 Peter 3:18 3:18b 3:18c 3:18d 3:18e 3:18f 3:18g
1 Peter 3:19 3:20 3:21 3:22

1 Peter 3: Greek Word Pictures
1 Peter 3:8-22: Loving Life
1 Peter 3:8-4:6: Dead Men Don't Sin

1 Peter 3:18 Unparalleled Suffering - Pdf
1 Peter 3:22 Our Ascended Lord - Pdf

1 Peter 3: Word Studies in NT
1 Peter Download lesson 1 of 12

1Peter 3:18-22 are notoriously difficult to interpret and reminiscent of Peter's statement about Paul's writings (See note 2 Peter 3:16).

J. M. E. Ross writes that 1 Peter 3:18 is

one of the shortest and simplest, and yet one of the richest summaries given in the NT of the meaning of the Cross of Jesus

FOR CHRIST ALSO DIED (suffered) FOR SINS ONCE FOR ALL: hoti kai Christos hapax peri hamartion epathen (3SAAI)(1Peter 2:21-24; 4:1; Isa 53:4-6; Ro 5:6-8; 8:3; 2 Cor 5:21; Gal 1:4; 3:13; Titus 2:14; Heb 9:26,28)

For (3754) (hoti) means because, since. For shows us that Peter is beginning to explain why it is sometimes God's will for us to suffer for doing what is right as he has just discussed. He wants to remind them not to be surprised nor discouraged by suffering. Peter offers encouragement to his suffering readers because any suffering they might endure for Christ pales in comparison to His glorious suffering in our place, which is similar to what the writer of Hebrews said to his suffering Jewish audience...

You have not yet resisted to the point of shedding blood in your striving against sin (See note Hebrews 12:4)

So although most believers will not be martyred, they will be called to suffer for Christ and can take heart that even as He triumphed over the suffering of the Cross, they too will eventually triumph over whatever suffering they might be enduring for His Name.

As Greek scholar A T Robertson says...

The example of Christ should stir us to patient endurance.

Wuest adds that Peter is encouraging his readers...

in their sufferings which they incurred by the doing of good, for Christ’s example made it clear to them that they also would receive blessing and reward for suffering when doing good. The word for is the translation of a Greek conjunction which means because. The resurrection of Christ and His consequent glorification in view of His suffering for sinners are presented as proof of the fact that suffering for well-doing on the part of Christians is also followed by blessing and reward in their lives. (Wuest, K. S. Wuest's Word Studies from the Greek New Testament: Eerdmans or Logos)

Peter is saying in essence

Yes you are suffering but He suffered also. So don't lose hope. Let the truth that follows about the suffering of Christ serve to encourage you.

He who was perfect Righteousness willingly suffered for totally unrighteous men. Obviously, believers can never suffer the way He did (for His was redemptive suffering), but we can suffer for righteousness because He suffered and brought us into the kingdom of light which automatically puts the believer in contact with the kingdom of darkness.  Remember that Peter's intent in this section is to help believers arm themselves (see note 1 Peter 4 :1) with the faith to suffer for the sake of Christ and His kingdom.

Many of those even in evangelical churches in America do not realize that suffering is the norm for believers in many (probably most) places of the world. Christianity in America as we enter the new Millennium is the exception not the rule. For example, evangelical missionaries entered Cambodia in the 1920's but were expelled in 1965 at which time there were by best estimates only about 600 believers. However from 1965-1975 civil war ravaged Cambodia and yet during that time the Christian population soared to an estimated 90,000, clearly indicative of the power of the Gospel of Jesus Christ to spread and convert the lost. It was an amazing work of God. But when the Khmer Rouge took control and Pol Pot unleashed his maniacal fury on the nation, most of the believers in Christ were either martyred or fled the country. Surely the truths of Peter's first epistle helped them arm themselves for suffering even as their Lord suffered (see note 1 Peter 4 :1)

Died (3958) (pascho) describes in its essence what one experiences or undergoes and virtually always refers to a bad sense. It should be noted however that pascho suffered is not in the best Greek texts, which instead have the verb apothnesko or died. The thought the same in either case because Christ’s death obviously involved suffering.

For (peri) sins - Literally reads concerning sins  (see similar use in Hebrews 5:3 [note]) because the preposition peri means with regard to, with reference to, in relation to.

Sins (
266) (hamartia) originally conveyed the idea of missing the mark as when hunting with a bow and arrow then missing or falling short of any goal, standard, or purpose.

Once for all (530) (hapax) means of perpetual validity, not requiring repetition.

Spurgeon...

One thing I know: Christ thinks more of our sins than he does of our righteousness, for He gave himself for our sins. I never heard that he gave Himself for our righteousness.

No soul ever ate a morsel more dainty than this one—substitution. I do think that this is the grandest truth in heaven and earth—Jesus Christ the just one died for the unjust, that He might bring us to God. It is meat to my soul. I can feed on it every day, and all the day.

Christ suffered for doing what is right. He is our example (see note 1 Peter 2:21) and we are to follow closely in His steps. Peter emphasizes Christ's example, because Peter learned (denying Him 3x when faced with the possibility of suffering for His Name's sake) that keeping a good conscience (see note 1 Peter 3:16) and suffering even though one does what is right (see note 1 Peter 3:17) is not something which frail, sinful flesh can accomplish in its own strength but can only be accomplished in Christ's strength (filled with, controlled by, empowered by His Spirit, see Acts 1:8, 2:2ff, Ephesians 5:18 [note]).

And Peter a Spirit transformed and controlled man practiced what he is preaching in this section, willingly suffering for Christ and not shrinking back as summarized in passages from Dr Luke's record...

And when they had summoned them, they commanded them not to speak or teach at all in the name of Jesus. But Peter and John answered and said to them, "Whether it is right in the sight of God to give heed to you rather than to God, you be the judge for we cannot stop speaking what we have seen and heard." (Acts 4:18-20)

But an angel of the Lord during the night opened the gates of the prison, and taking them out he said, "Go your way, stand and speak to the people in the temple the whole message of this Life." (Acs 5:19,20)

"We (Jewish rulers, the Council, the Sanhedrin) gave you strict orders not to continue teaching in this name, and behold, you have filled Jerusalem with your teaching, and intend to bring this man's blood upon us."  But Peter and the apostles answered and said, "We must obey God rather than men. (Acts 5:28, 29)

And they took his advice; and after calling the apostles in, they flogged them and ordered them to speak no more in the name of Jesus, and then released them. So they went on their way from the presence of the Council, rejoicing that they had been considered worthy to suffer shame for His name. (Acts 5:40, 41)

And in the end as indicated by the traditional account Peter apparently received his desire to be crucified upside down for His Lord. In short, Peter is fully qualified to speak about suffering and enduring for His Name's sake!

As alluded to above, it is notable how completely Peter's heart had changed after He received the Holy Spirit on the Day of Pentecost. The old Peter filled with a very different spirit strongly objected to the idea that Christ might have to suffer

And Peter took Him aside and began to rebuke Him, saying, "God forbid it, Lord! This shall never happen to You."  But He turned and said to Peter, "Get behind Me, Satan! You are a stumbling block to Me; for you are not setting your mind on God's interests, but man's." (Mt 16:22, 23)!

Now Peter was sitting outside in the courtyard, and a certain servant-girl came to him and said, "You too were with Jesus the Galilean." But he denied it before them all, saying, "I do not know what you are talking about." (Mt 26:69-70)

What a difference a Day made

 And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak with other tongues, as the Spirit was giving them utterance. (Acts 2:4).

And beloved we too must yield to the Spirit's Who will enable us to suffer for His sake as more than conquerors.

THE JUST FOR THE UNJUST IN ORDER THAT HE MIGHT BRING US TO GOD: peri hamartion dikaios huper (instead of, as substitute for) adikon hina humas prosagage (3SAAS) to theo: (Zechariah 9:9
; Mt 27:19,24; Acts 3:14; 22:14; Js 5:6; 1 John 1:9) (Ephesians 2:16-18)

Just (1342)(dikaios from dike = right, just) (Click word study on dikaios) defines that which is in accordance with high standards of rectitude. It is that which is in right relation to another and so in reference to persons defines the one who is morally and ethically righteous, upright or just

Unjust  (94) (adikos from a = without + díke = justice) means falling short of the righteousness required by divine laws.

In order that (2443) (hina) introduces the purpose for which the perfect Righteous One suffered and died for unrighteous sinners.

Bring us to (4317) (prosago from pros = toward, facing + ago = to go) is used of a person who brings another into the presence of a third party. (Click study of related noun prosagoge) describes someone’s being introduced or given access to another. In classical Greek the noun form prosagoge refers to the one making the introduction. In ancient courts certain officials controlled access to the king. They verified someone’s right to see him and then introduced that person to the monarch. Christ now performs that function for believers. He opened the way of access to God.

Prosago is used repeatedly in the Septuagint (LXX) for the sin offering. For example Moses records...

Leviticus 5:8 'And he shall bring (prosago) them to the priest, who shall offer first that which is for the sin offering and shall nip its head at the front of its neck, but he shall not sever it.

This verb prosago conveys several pictures, all illustrating some aspect of this profound truth...

(1) Presentation of a sacrifice for reconciliation with God.

(2) The entry of the Levitical high priest into the Holy of Holies on the Day of Atonement.

(3). The presentation before the Judge in a court of law.

(4). The bringing in of an individual for an audience with a King.

(5). The bringing in of the initiate before the savior-god in the mystery cults (truth always has a counterfeit!).

The meaning here is the aim of Christ's work to bring about man's reconciliation with God so that the cleansed sinner can be brought into the presence of the King by Christ, our Redeemer.

To bring us to God was Christ's mission

For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give His life a ransom for many." (Mk 10:45).

Jesus was always a man on the Mission, declaring to His disciples who were worried about physical food..

My food is to do the will of Him who sent Me, and to accomplish His work. (Jn 4:34).

Later just before His suffering and crucifixion He once again reaffirmed His mission in His prayer to His Father declaring...

I glorified Thee on the earth, having accomplished the work which Thou hast given Me to do. (John 17:4)

The divine tearing of the temple veil from top to bottom symbolically demonstrated the reality that He had opened the way to God. Matthew recorded this momentous event writing that just as Jesus cried out and yielded up His Spirit...

behold, the veil of the temple was torn in two from top to bottom, and the earth shook; and the rocks were split (Mt 27:51)

The writer of Hebrews exampled that the temple veil tearing was but a picture of the tearing of our Lord's writing that now believers in His sacrificial, fully atoning death on the Cross...

have confidence to enter the holy place by the blood of Jesus, by a new and living way which He inaugurated for us through the veil (of the Temple, separating man from the presence of God in the Holy of holies), that is, His flesh (alluding to crucifixion) and since we have a great priest over the house of God (see notes Hebrews 10:19; 20; 21)

Because of the work of Christ on the cross He became our "Forerunner" and High Priest

This hope we have as an anchor of the soul, a hope both sure and steadfast and one which enters within the veil, where Jesus has entered as a forerunner for us, having become a high priest forever according to the order of Melchizedek. (See notes Hebrews 6:19; 20)

As a result of His death in our place, believers have been "brought to God" and have continual access to the Throne room of God, Paul explaining that...

through Him we both (believing Jews and Gentiles) have our access in one Spirit to the Father. (See note Ephesians 2:18)

in whom we have boldness and confident access through faith in Him. (See note Ephesians 3:12)

In Romans Paul explains that because of His death, burial and resurrection, we are how justified by faith, have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ...

through Whom also we have obtained our introduction by faith into this grace in which we stand; and we exult in hope of the glory of God. (See note Romans 5:2)

NT believers may now come boldly to His throne...

For we do not have a high priest who cannot sympathize with our weaknesses, but One who has been tempted in all things as we are, yet without sin. Let us therefore draw near with confidence to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and may find grace to help in time of need. (See notes Hebrews 4:15; 16)

In summary, 1 Peter 3:18 is one of the riches summaries in the Scriptures of the meaning of the Cross of Christ.

HAVING BEEN PUT TO DEATH IN THE FLESH: thanatotheis (APPMSN) men sarki: (1Peter 4:1; Da 9:26; Ro 4:25; 2 Cor 1:24; 13:4; Col 1:21,22)

Put to death (2289) (thanatoo) means to kill or cause to be put to death and leaves no doubt that on the Cross Jesus’ physical life ceased. The passive voice (speaks of action that comes to the subject from an outside source) indicates the total culpability of His executioners and stresses what man did to Him.

Flesh (4561) (sarx) refers to Jesus' physical body, His "flesh and blood" body.

In His flesh points out that He was no docetic phantom (Docetists deny that the incarnation and the true human life of Christ ever took place) Who only appeared to have a human body, as "flesh" refers to the humanity Christ assumed at the incarnation (Jn 1:14, 1Ti 3:16). Used without an article "flesh" is qualitative and characterizes Him as a human being, a man among men here on earth.

BUT MADE ALIVE IN THE SPIRIT: zoopoietheis (APPMSN) de pneumati: (Ro 1:4
; 8:11)

Made alive (2227) (zoopoieo from zoos = alive + poieo = to make) literally means to make alive. This verb is in the passive voice which indicates that there is operation of power from an outside source, the Spirit of...

But if the Spirit of Him Who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, He who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will also give life to your mortal bodies through His Spirit who indwells you (See note Romans 8:11)

In the spirit (4151) (pneuma) is a reference to Jesus’ eternal inner person. Christ's eternal spirit has always been alive, although His earthly body was then dead; but three days later His body was resurrected in a transformed and eternal state.

John MacArthur writes that...

The phrase made alive in the spirit refers to the life of Jesus' spirit--not to the Holy Spirit. There's no article in the Greek text indicates that Peter was referring to the Holy Spirit. Rather, he seems to be contrasting what happened to the flesh (or body) of Jesus with what happened to His spirit. His spirit was alive but His flesh was dead.

Some think made alive in the spirit refers to Christ's resurrection, but that would necessitate a statement like, He was put to death in the flesh but made alive in the flesh. The resurrection was a spiritual and physical occurrence. Thus Peter's point has to be that though Christ was physically dead, His spirit was still alive.

Though in spirit Christ was alive, He did experience spiritual death--not cessation of existence but separation from God. On the cross He said

My God, My God, why hast Thou forsaken Me? (Mt 27:46)

That shows the separation He temporarily experienced from the Father when He was made sin for us (2 Cor. 5:21). Similarly, unbelievers experience spiritual death (separation from God) in this life and eternal death in the next, but they never cease to exist.

The separation between Christ and the Father was over quickly, for shortly after our Lord's lament He said,

Father, into Thy hands I commit My spirit (Luke 23:46)

That shows His spirit was alive again--no longer separated from God--and could be committed to the Father. (See full message Triumph of Christ's Suffering -2)

C H Spurgeon wrote...

One thing I know: Christ thinks more of our sins than he does of our righteousness, for he gave himself for our sins. I never heard that he gave himself for our righteousness.

---

No soul ever ate a morsel more dainty than this one—substitution. I do think that this is the grandest truth in heaven and earth—Jesus Christ the just one died for the unjust, that he might bring us to God. It is meat to my soul. I can feed on it every day, and all the day.

---

"The just for the unjust" I can understand. But the "just dying for the just" would be a double injustice—an injustice that the just should be punished at all, and another injustice that the just should be punished for them. Oh, no! If Christ died, it must be because there was a penalty to be paid for sin committed. Hence he must have died for those who had committed the sin. 

The Judge's Compassion - During his years as mayor of New York City, Fiorello La Guardia sometimes presided as judge in a night court. In one case, a man was found guilty of stealing a loaf of bread. He pleaded that he had committed that theft to feed his starving family. "The law is the law," La Guardia declared. "I must therefore fine you $10." When the man sadly confessed that he had no money, the judge took $10 out of his wallet and paid the fine. He also asked each person in the courtroom to contribute 50 cents to help the man.

At the heart of the gospel stands the cross of Jesus Christ. Its message is so plain that even a child can understand it: Jesus took my place and died instead of me. But its truth is so awesome that the wisest of humans can't fully fathom its meaning. The Bible says, "Christ also suffered once for sins, the just for the unjust, that He might bring us to God" (1 Peter 3:18). It also says, "When we were still without strength, in due time Christ died for the ungodly" (see note
Romans 5:6).

As we look at the judge's compassion, we catch at least a glimpse of God's measureless grace. The demands of the law were satisfied. The judge himself paid the fine. The lawbreaker was set free and even blessed with an undeserved gift. What a profound picture of our Savior! —Vernon C Grounds (
Our Daily Bread, Copyright RBC Ministries, Grand Rapids, MI. Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved)

There's a wideness in God's mercy
Like the wideness of the sea;
There's a kindness in His justice,
Which is more than liberty. —Faber

The way to face Christ as Judge is to know Him as your Savior.

 

1 Peter 3:19  in which also He went and made proclamation to the spirits now in prison,  (NASB: Lockman)

Greek: en o kai tois en phulake pneumasin poreutheis (APPMSN) ekeruxen (3SAAI), 
Amplified:  In which He went and preached to the spirits in prison,
(Amplified Bible - Lockman)
NLT
:  So he went and preached to the spirits in prison-- (
NLT - Tyndale House)
Phillips: It was in the spirit that he went and preached to the imprisoned souls  (
Phillips: Touchstone)
Wuest:  by which [human spirit] also having proceeded, He made a proclamation to the imprisoned spirits  (
Erdmans
Young's Literal
: in which also to the spirits in prison having gone he did preach,

IN WHICH ALSO HE WENT: en o kai tois en phulake pneumasin poreutheis (APPMSN) ekeruxen (3SAAI): (1Peter 1:11,12; 4:6; Neh9:30; Rev19:10)

In which - This phrase points to what happened to Christ's living spirit. While Christ's body lay in the tomb, He went in His spirit to another place.

Went (4198) (poreúomai from poros = a passing or passage) means to go from one place to another and is used in 1Peter 3:22 to describe Christ's ascension.  Unlike the spirits of the unrighteous, who immediately experience the wrath of God after death, the spirit of Christ was able to accomplish God's perfect purpose.

This passage has been subject to many interpretations. Some say Peter referred to the descent of Christ into Hades (Sheol is the OT counterpart) between His death and resurrection to offer people who lived before the Flood a second chance for salvation which is clearly without scriptural support.

For example  Heb 9:27 says

And inasmuch as it is appointed for men to die once (Once for all time to die. No reincarnation) and after this comes judgment

Luke similarly records Abraham's words to the rich man in the "hot side" of Hades...

 'And besides all this, between us and you there is a great chasm fixed, in order that those who wish to come over from here to you may not be able, and that none may cross over from there to us.' (Lu 16:26).

Others have said this passage refers to Christ’s descent into hell after His crucifixion to proclaim His victory to the imprisoned fallen angels referred to in 2 Peter 2:4; 2:5 (notes), equating them with “the sons of God” (Ge 6:1-2, cp Job 1:6, 2:1, Jude 1:6,7), an interpretation that a number of conservative commentators do not agree with.

Others say that Christ descended into Hades and made proclamation to all of disobedient mankind at the time of the flood. But if that is so why would these men and women be singled out compared for example to those of Sodom & Gomorrah?

Some such as Wayne Grudem and D. Edmond Hiebert (both respected Bible scholars) feel that Christ did not descend into Hades at all after His crucifixion.

In sum, this passage is difficult one should not break fellowship with someone who holds a different interpretation.

AND MADE PROCLAMATION: en o kai tois en phulake pneumasin poreutheis (APPMSN) ekeruxen (3SAAI):

Proclamation (2784) (kerusso) means to announce as a herald, to proclaim. In the ancient world, heralds would come to town as representatives of the rulers to make public announcements or precede generals and kings in the processions celebrating military triumphs, announcing victories won in battle. Kerusso is not the word Peter used with the meaning “to preach the Gospel” (See notes 1Peter 1:12, 1 Peter 4:6.)

Peter did not tell us what Jesus proclaimed, but if these were indeed demonic spirits, it could not be a message of redemption since angels cannot be saved (see note Hebrews 2:16).

MacArthur explains that...

Christ went to preach a triumphant sermon before His resurrection Sunday morning. The verb translated "made proclamation" (kerusso) refers to making a proclamation or announcing a triumph. In ancient times a herald would proceed generals and kings in the celebration of military victories, announcing to all the victories won in battle. That's what Jesus went to do--not to preach the gospel (euaggelizomai "to evangelize") but to announce His triumph over sin, death, hell, demons, and Satan. He didn't go to win souls but to proclaim victory to the enemy in spite of the unjust suffering they subjected Him to. (Ed note: I personally agree with Dr MacArthur but again would not break fellowship with you if you disagreed.)

Ray Pritchard writes...

I personally believe that Jesus preached to those demonic spirits and proclaimed his ultimate victory over them. To say that he “preached” to them does mean that he offered salvation to them. Salvation is for humans, not for angels or demons. The verb “preached” means to make a public announcement. It’s what a herald would do when he went from city to city announcing the king’s decrees. I believe that Jesus, either between his death and resurrection or after his resurrection, proclaimed his victory to those demon spirits that rebelled so greatly against the Lord in Noah’s day. (See full message - 1 Peter 3:18-22 The Triumphant Christ)

TO THE SPIRITS NOW IN PRISON: en o kai tois en phulake pneumasin poreutheis (APPMSN) ekeruxen (3SAAI): (Isa 42:7; 49:9; 61:1; Rev 20:7)

Prison (5438) (phulake from phulasso) (See word study of phulasso) describes the act of guarding and by metonymy the place where guarding is done.

To the Spirits - MacArthur feels that this does not refer to human spirits (or Peter would have used the word psuche for souls). Instead Peter used pneuma, a word the New Testament never uses to refer to people except when qualified by a genitive (e.g., Hebrews 12:23